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Saint Thomas Christian denominations

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This article is about the denominations with adherence among the Saint Thomas Christians. For the people, see Saint Thomas Christians.

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The Saint Thomas Christian denominations are Christian denominations from Kerala, India, which traditionally trace their ultimate origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century.[1][2][3][4] They are also known as "Nasranis" as well. The Syriac term "Nasrani" is still used by St. Thomas Christians in Kerala. It is part of the Eastern Christianity institution.

Historically, this community formed a part of the Church of the East, served by metropolitan bishops and a local archdeacon.[5][6][7] By the 15th century, the Church of the East had declined drastically,[8][9] and the 16th century witnessed the Portuguese colonial overtures to bring St Thomas Christians into the Latin Catholic Church, administered by their Padroado, leading to the first of several rifts (schisms) in the community.[10][11][12] The attempts of the Portuguese culminated in the Synod of Diamper in 1599 and was resisted by local Christians through the Coonan Cross Oath protest in 1653. This led to the permanent schism among the Thomas' Christians of India, leading to the formation of Puthenkūr (New allegiance, pronounced Pùttènkūṟ) and Pazhayakūr (Old allegiance, pronounced Paḻayakūṟ) factions.[13] The Pazhayakūr comprise the present day Syro-Malabar Church and Chaldean Syrian Church which continue to employ the original East Syriac Rite liturgy.[5][14][15][16] The Puthenkūr group, who resisted the Portuguese, organized themselves as the independent Malankara Church,[17] entered into a new communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch, and they inherited the West Syriac Rite from the Syriac Orthodox Church, which employs the Liturgy of Saint James, an ancient rite of the Church of Antioch, replacing the old East Syriac Rite liturgy.[18][5][19]

Overview

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Main article: Saint Thomas Christians
Nasranis or Syriac Christians of Kerala in ancient days (from an old painting). Photo published in the Cochin Government Royal War Efforts Souvenir in 1938

The Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala belong to a unique Eastern Christian tradition blended in the changing socio-cultural environment of their homeland in Southern Indian subcontinent.[20] Thus, the community is often defined as Hindu or Indian in culture, Christian in religion, and Syriac-Oriental in terms of liturgy and worship.[20]

Their traditions date to first-century Christian thought, and the seven "and a half" churches established by Thomas the Apostle during his mission in Malabar.[21][22][23] These are located at Kodungalloor (Muziris), Paravur, Palayoor, Kokkamangalam, Niranam, Nilackal, Kollam, and the Thiruvithamcode Arappally in Kanyakumari district.

St. Thomas Christian families who claim their descent from ancestors who were baptized by Apostle Thomas are found throughout Kerala.[24][20] St. Thomas Christians were classified into the social status system according to their professions with special privileges for trade granted by the benevolent kings who ruled the area. After the 8th century when Hindu kingdoms came to sway, Christians were expected to strictly abide by stringent rules pertaining to caste and religion. This became a matter of survival. This is why St. Thomas Christians had such a strong sense of caste and tradition, being the oldest order of Christianity in India. The Archdeacon was the head of the Church, and Palliyogams (Parish Councils) were in charge of temporal affairs. They had a liturgy-centered life with days of fasting and abstinence. Their devotion to the Mar Thoma tradition was absolute. Their churches were modelled after Jewish synagogues.[20] "The church is neat and they keep it sweetly. There are mats but no seats. Instead of images, they have some useful writing from the holy book."[25][26]

The Nasranis constitute two distinct ethnic groups, namely the Vatakkumbhagar and Tekkumbhagar, which share a common cultural history.[27] As a community with common cultural heritage and cultural tradition, they refer to themselves as Nasranis.[27] However, as a religious group, they refer to themselves as Mar Thoma Khristianis or in English as Saint Thomas Christians, based on their religious tradition of Syriac Christianity.[27][28][29]

However, from a religious angle, the Saint Thomas Christians of today belong to various denominations as a result of a series of developments including Portuguese persecution[30] (a landmark split leading to a public Oath known as Coonen Cross Oath), reformative activities during the time of the British (6,000 - 12,000 Jacobites joined the C.M.S. in 1836, after the Synod of Mavelikara; who are now within the Church of South India), doctrines and missionary zeal influence ( Malankara Church and Patriarch/Catholicos issue (division of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church (1912)).

The Eastern Catholic faction is in full communion with the Holy See in Rome. This includes the aforementioned Syro-Malabar Church as well as the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, the latter arising from an Oriental Orthodox faction that entered into communion with Rome in 1930 under Bishop Geevarghese Ivanios (d. 1953). As such the Malankara Catholic Church employs the West Syriac liturgy of the Syriac Orthodox Church,[31] while the Syro-Malabar Church employs the East Syriac liturgy of the historic Church of the East.[5]

The Oriental Orthodox faction includes the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, resulting from a split within the Malankara Church in 1912 over whether the church should be autocephalous or rather under the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch.[32] As such, the Malankara Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox Church independent of the Patriarch of Antioch,[32] whereas the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church and is headed by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch.[18]

The Iraq-based Assyrian Church of the East's archdiocese includes the Chaldean Syrian Church based in Thrissur.[33] They were a minority faction within the Syro-Malabar Church, which split off and joined with the Church of the East Bishop during the 1870s. The Assyrian Church is one of the descendant churches of the Church of the East.[34] Thus it forms the continuation of the traditional church of Saint Thomas Christians in India.[35]

Oriental Protestant denominations include the Mar Thoma Syrian Church and the St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India.[36] The Marthoma Syrian Church were a part of the Malankara Church that went through a reformation movement under Abraham Malpan due to influence of British Anglican missionaries in the 1800s. The Mar Thoma Church employs a reformed variant of the liturgical West Syriac Rite.[37][38] The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India is an evangelical faction that split off from the Marthoma Church in 1961.[39]

CSI Syrian Christians are a minority faction of Malankara Syrian Christians, who joined the Anglican Church in 1836, and eventually became part of the Church of South India in 1947, after Indian independence. The C.S.I. is in full communion with the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.[40][41][42][43] By the 20th century, various Syrian Christians joined Pentecostal and other evangelical denominations like the Kerala Brethren, Indian Pentecostal Church of God, Assemblies of God, among others. They are known as Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians.[44][45]

List of churches

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Saint Thomas Christians denominational history

Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church

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History

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The Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church (MJSOC) descends from the Puthenkoor faction of the Saint Thomas Christian community which remained unwilling to restore ties with the Catholic Church and the Pope, after the united community broke the Portuguese Catholic hegemony under the leadership of Archdeacon Thoma Parambil through the Coonan Cross Oath, and instead chose to align with the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch. They organised themselves as the 'Malankara Church' and developed a relationship with the Syriac Orthodox Church starting in 1665, when Thoma Parambil was recognised as their legitimate bishop by the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch. This relationship was gradually strengthened over the years and thus they changed their liturgical rite from East Syriac to West Syriac, a process which was complete by the 19th century. This also led to emergence of resentment towards the ever-growing authority of the Patriarch of Antioch in the Malankara Church. Thus this Church suffered further divisions in the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries, resulting in the formation of multiple Malankara churches.[52]

Overview

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The ‘Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church’, as it is known today, is an autonomous branch of the Syrian Orthodox Church, and has its own catholicos with authority in India.[53] It has an estimated 0.5 million members. It is also a founding member of the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches in America.[54]

The Malabar Independent Syrian Church

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History

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The Malabar Independent Syrian Church (MISC) is formed from the historical Malankara Church in 1757, when a group of Syrian orthodox bishops, led by Baselios Shukr-Allah and sent by the patriarch, ordained monk Kurillos Abraham Kattumangatt as an opponent to Thoma VI, the incumbent dynastic leader of the Puthenkoor Malankara Church. Thoma VI, later known as Dionysios I, was initially hesitant to submit to the Patriarch of Antioch and was unwilling to receive Holy Orders afresh from the Syrian Orthodox bishops as they declared his orders to be invalid. Thoma responded by trying to reunite with the Catholic Church under the Pope by collaborating with kindred spirits in the Pazhayakoor faction, such as Yousep Kariyattil and Paremmakkal Thoma. Frustrated of his defiance, one of the Syrian Orthodox bishops from Jerusalem consecrated Kurillos as his rival in an attempt to secure their foothold in the Malankara Church. However Thoma's reunion attempt with the Catholic Church failed due to opposition from the Carmelite missionaries, and by then Thoma finally yielded to the demands and received ordination and consecration anew from the Syrian Orthodox bishops and changed to the episcopal name Dionysios I in return for their support against Bishop Kurillos. The dispute between Kurillos and Dionysios was decided in the latter's favour by the Travancore King and subsequently he lost the favour of Cochin King as well. This forced Kurillos to flee from the territories of both of these kings and he eventually settled in Thozhiyur in British Malabar.

Overview

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The Malabar Independent Syrian Church, is concentrated in Thozhiyur, a place in Thrissur District of Kerala, and is hence popularly called the Thozhiyur Church. It has had few members since its beginning. It is led by a single metropolitan, known by the title Thozhiyur Metropolitan. Today it accounts for no more than 10,000 members chiefly in and around Thozhiyur. It maintains relations with Lutheran and Anglican churches, and also with the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.[55]

Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church

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History

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The Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church evolved from the Malankara Syrian Church in the late 19th century. It was a resultant of a reform under the patronage of Anglican missionaries among the Puthenkoor Thomas Christians. The relationship between the Anglican church and the Malankara Syrian Church dates to the late 18th century when the British helped Dionysios I (Thoma VI) to secure his position against his rival Bishop Abraham Kurillos Kattumangatt. It further solidified during Dionysius Joseph I's term due to the support the Anglicans offered him to overthrow Thoma XI, the last dynastic leader of the Puthenkoor, and establish himself as the Malankara Metropolitan recognised by the State. They collaborated with the Malankara Church in founding the Syrian Seminary in Kottayam and this relationship reached its peak during Dionysius Giwargis Punnathara's reign. He was succeeded by Giwargis Philexinos Kidangan, the Thozhiyur Metropolitan and an ally of the Anglican CMS missionaries. However he had to relinquish the throne in two years and consecrate Dionysios Philippos of Cheppad as the next Malankara Metropolitan without informing the Patriarch of Antioch.

The efforts of Anglican CMS missionaries were aimed at an Anglican-inspired reformation in the Malankara Church and its eventual merger into their hierarchy. This was opposed by a large section of the Puthenkoor Thomas Christians who stood for Syrian traditionalism and loyalty to the Patriarch of Antioch. Cheppad Dionysios eventually aligned himself with them and convened a Synod at Mavelikara on 16 January 1836 where it was declared that Malankara Church would be subject to the Syrian traditions and Patriarch of Antioch.[56] The declaration resulted in the separation of the CMS missionaries from the communion with the Malankara Church.[41][57] However, another group who were in favour of the Reformed ideologies, led by priest Palakkunnath Abraham Malpan amassed support against Dionysios Philippos and sent Deacon Mathew Palakkunnath, a nephew of Abraham Malpan, to the Patriarch. The Patriarch, satisfied with Mathew's knowledge in Syriac and English and his spiritual life, consecrated him the bishop for Malankara Syrians, against Dionysios Philippos who had previously assumed their leadership without his approval. Dionysios Philippos was reluctant to receive or step down from office for Athanasius, who returned to his homeland as Metropolitan appointed by the Patriarch. Instead, Dionysios transferred his power to Yuyaqim Kurillos, a Syrian bishop sent by the Patriarch. The dispute between Kurillos and Athanasius was brought into the court, which in 1852 decided in favour of Athanasius. Kurillos was exiled to British Malabar were he amassed support and selected Pulikkottil Joseph to be sent to the Patriarch. In 1865, Pulikkottil was consecrated metropolitan as Dionysios Joseph by the patriarch and on returning, he became a rival for Athanasius.[58]

Athanasius managed to ensure the support of the British and maintain his position. In 1868, he selected his nephew, Thomas as his heir and consecrated him as Thomas Athanasius. Pulikkottil Dionysios and his supporters appealed to Patriarch Ignatius Petros III for his direct intervention. The patriarch visited London and met with the Archbishop of Canterbury. After securing the support of the Anglican Church leadership, he arrived in India and convened the Synod of Mulanthuruthy in 1876. At this synod, Pulikkottil Dionysios was declared Malankara Metropolitan and Athanasius was anathematised for his alleged Protestant views.[58]

Athanasius did not submit to the patriarch and declined the patriarch's invitation to the synod. He retained his position as the Malankara Metropolitan until his death in 1877 at the Kottayam Seminary, the seat of the church. He was then succeeded by Thomas Athanasius. A case was filed against Thomas Athanasius by Dionysios in the Court and both sides argued in court for a long time. In 1889, the Travancore Royal Court division bench ruled its final verdict in favor of Dionysios Joseph, considering his appointment by the Patriarch of Antioch, and Thomas Athanasius was forced relinquish his authority and to vacate the church headquarters. Those aligned with Thomas Athanasius became the Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church.[55]

Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church

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History

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The early 20th century saw a resurgence of jurisdictional disputes when Malankara Metropolitan Dionysios Giwargis Vattasseril was excommunicated by Patriarch Ignatius Abdallah II. In 1912, Vattasseril managed to bring the former patriarch Ignatius Abdal Masih II to India and establish an independent (autocephalous) Catholicate for the Malankara Church. Thus he and a group within the Malankara Church declared itself independent from the Syrian Orthodox patriarchate of Antioch. They called themselves as the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church - Catholicate of the East and also as the Indian Orthodox Church.

The Malankara Orthodox were simultaneously led by two leaders titled the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan until 1934, when they finally drew up a constitution wherein the two positions were ultimately merged and was made to be held by a single person. However the constitution retained the Patriarch of Antioch as a strict ceremonial figurehead of the Malankara Church, which was further defined as a division of the Syriac Orthodox Church. Meanwhile, the other faction which remained aligned to the Patriarch of Antioch continued as the autonomous branch of the Syriac Orthodox Church and was led by their own local Malankara Metropolitans.

The two factions – one loyal to the patriarch and the other, the independent Malankara Orthodox – were reconciled in 1958, when the Indian Supreme court declared that only the Malankara Orthodox had legal standing. In 1964, Patriarch Ignatius Yacoub III elevated Baselios Augen as the new Catholicos for the united Malankara Church only to excommunicate him in 1975 due to jurisdictional disputes, which resulted in a second schism. Attempts at reconciliation were unsuccessful as severe quarrels over church property and court suits followed.

In 1995, the supreme Indian court in its judgement ratified the Malankara Orthodox constitution of 1934 and decided that the Patriarch of Antioch was the supreme spiritual head of the universal Syrian Church subject to the aforementioned constitution, while the catholicos had legal standing as the vicar of the patriarch and thus as the de facto spiritual head of the Malankara church. It further declared that the Malankara Metropolitan was the custodian of parishes and properties of the Malankara Church. Following the Supreme Court ruling, churches under the control of the Jacobite church have also been legally brought under the control of the Malankara Orthodox Church. However the efforts to bring this to a practical level often turn out to be a conflict between the local faithful of the Jacobite church and the police.[53]

Overview

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The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, or the Indian Orthodox Church as it is also known today, is led by the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan as its supreme universal leader and has dioceses around the world with about 0.5 million members.

Demography

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Percentages Christian denominations in Kerala, including non-Saint Thomas Christians, in 2011[59][dead link‍]
  1. Catholic (61%)
  2. Oriental Orthodox (15.9%)
  3. Protestant (14.6%)
  4. Dalit Christians (2.6%)
  5. Other (5.9%)

Most Saint Thomas Christians live in their native Indian state of Kerala. A 2016 study under the aegis of the Govt. of Kerala, based on the data from 2011 Census of India and Kerala Migration Surveys, counted 2,345,911 Syro-Malabar Catholics, 493,858 Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox, 482,762 Malankara Orthodox Syrians, 465,207 Syro-Malankara Catholics and 405,089 Mar Thoma Syrians out of 6.14 million Christians in Kerala. The study also reported 274,255 Church of South India and 213,806 Pentecost/Brethren affiliates, which includes ethnic Syrians and others.[59][60] The Chaldean Syrian Church, St Thomas Evangelical Church of India and Malabar Independent Syrian Church are much smaller denominations.

See also

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References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Medlycott (2005).
  2. ^ Fahlbusch (2008), p. 285.
  3. ^ The Jews of India: A Story of Three Communities by Orpa Slapak. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. 2003. p. 27. ISBN 965-278-179-7.
  4. ^ Puthiakunnel, Thomas. "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas". In Menachery (1973).
  5. ^ a b c d Brock (2011a).
  6. ^ Baum & Winkler (2003), p. 52.
  7. ^ Bundy, David D. (2011). "Timotheos I". In Sebastian P. Brock; Aaron M. Butts; George A. Kiraz; Lucas Van Rompay (eds.). Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition. Gorgias Press. Retrieved 22 September 2016.
  8. ^ "How did Timur change the history of the world?". DailyHistory.org.
  9. ^ "10 Terrors of the Tyrant Tamerlane". Listverse. 15 January 2018.
  10. ^ Frykenberg (2008), p. 111.
  11. ^ "Christians of Saint Thomas". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 February 2010.
  12. ^ Frykenberg (2008), pp. 134–136.
  13. ^ Perczel, István (September 2014). "Garshuni Malayalam: A Witness to an Early Stage of Indian Christian Literature". Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. 17 (2): 291.
  14. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica (2011). Synod of Diamper. Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
  15. ^ For the Acts and Decrees of the Synod cf. Michael Geddes, "A Short History of the Church of Malabar Together with the Synod of Diamper &c." London, 1694; Repr. in George Menachery (ed.), Indian Church History Classics, Vol.1, Ollur 1998, pp. 33–112.
  16. ^ F. L. Cross; E. A. Livingstone, eds. (2009) [2005]. "Addai and Mari, Liturgy of". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192802903.
  17. ^ Neill, Stephen (1970). The Story of the Christian Church in India and Pakistan. Christian Literature Society. p. 36. At the end of a period of twenty years, it was found that about two – thirds of the people had remained within the Roman allegiance; one – third stood by the archdeacon and had organized themselves as the independent Malankara Church, faithful to the old Eastern traditions and hostile to all the Roman claims.
  18. ^ a b Joseph (2011).
  19. ^ "Kerala Syrian Christian, Apostle in India, The tomb of the Apostle, Persian Church, Syond of Diamper – Coonan Cross Oath, Subsequent divisions and the Nasrani People". Nasranis. 13 February 2007.
  20. ^ a b c d Menachery (1973, 1998); Brown (1956); Jacob (2001); Poomangalam (1998); Weil (1982).
  21. ^ Neill (2004), p. [page needed].
  22. ^ "Biography of St. Thomas the Apostle". Naperville, IL: St. Thomas the Apostle Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007.
  23. ^ "Stephen Andrew Missick. Mar Thoma: The Apostolic Foundation of the Assyrian Church and the Christians of St. Thomas in India. Journal of Assyrian Academic studies" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008.
  24. ^ Mathew (2003), p. [page needed].
  25. ^ Herbert (1638), p. 304.
  26. ^ Mathew (2003), p. 91.
  27. ^ a b c Menachery (1973).
  28. ^ Brown (1956).
  29. ^ Origin of Christianity in India - A Historiographical Critique by Dr. Benedict Vadakkekara. (2007). ISBN 81-7495-258-6.
  30. ^ Buchanan (1811); Menachery (1973, 1998); Mundadan (1984); Podipara (1970); Brown (1956).
  31. ^ Brock (2011b).
  32. ^ a b Varghese (2011).
  33. ^ George, V. C. The Church in India Before and After the Synod of Diamper. Prakasam Publications. He wished to propagate Nestorianism within the community. Misunderstanding arose between him and the Assyrian Patriarch, and from the year 1962 onwards the Chaldean Syrian Church in Malabar has had two sections within it, one known as the Patriarch party and the other as the Bishop's party.
  34. ^ "Church of the East in India". Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
  35. ^ Brock (2011c).
  36. ^ South Asia. Missions Advanced Research and Communication Center. 1980. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-912552-33-0. The Mar Thoma Syrian Church, which represents the Protestant Reform movement, broke away from the Syrian Orthodox Church in the 19th century.
  37. ^ Fenwick (2011b).
  38. ^ "Ecumenical Relations". marthomanae.org. 9 May 2016. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  39. ^ "Mission & Vision". St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India (steci) is an episcopal Church. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2020.
  40. ^ Dalal, Roshen (18 April 2014). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-81-8475-396-7.
  41. ^ a b Neill (2002), pp. 247–251.
  42. ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milic; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Mbiti, John; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Vischer, Lukas (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 687–688. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5.
  43. ^ Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin (21 September 2010). Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 707. ISBN 978-1-59884-204-3.
  44. ^ Anderson, Allan; Tang, Edmond (2005). Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia. OCMS. pp. 192–193, 195–196, 203–204. ISBN 978-1-870345-43-9.
  45. ^ Bergunder (2008), pp. 15–16, 26–30, 37–57.
  46. ^ "Thomas Christians: History & Tradition". Encyclopedia Britannica. 28 November 2023.
  47. ^ Frykenberg (2008), p. 249.
  48. ^ Fahlbusch (2001), pp. 686–687.
  49. ^ Bergunder (2008), pp. 15–16.
  50. ^ John, Stanley J. Valayil C. (19 February 2018). Transnational Religious Organization and Practice: A Contextual Analysis of Kerala Pentecostal Churches in Kuwait. BRILL. p. 103. ISBN 978-90-04-36101-0.
  51. ^ Indian Pentecostal Church of God. "Our History". Retrieved 15 December 2024.
  52. ^ Winkler 2018, p. 130—131.
  53. ^ a b Winkler 2018, p. 131.
  54. ^ "History of Christianity in travancore". scooch.org. p. 216-219.
  55. ^ a b Winkler 2018, p. 132.
  56. ^ Cherian, Dr. C.V., Orthodox Christianity in India. Academic Publishers, College Road, Kottayam. 2003.p. 254-262.
  57. ^ Bayly (2004), p. 300.
  58. ^ a b Mackenzie (1906), p. 217-219.
  59. ^ a b Zachariah, K.C. ""Religious Denominations of Kerala" (Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India), Working Paper 468, April 2016, p. 29" (PDF). Retrieved 19 July 2022.
  60. ^ "Census of India Website: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India". www.censusindia.gov.in.

Bibliography

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  • Neill, Stephen (2 May 2002). A History of Christianity in India: 1707-1858. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89332-9.
  • Neill, Stephen (2004). A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54885-4.
  • Podipara, Placid J. (1970). The Thomas Christians. London: Darton, Longman and Tidd. (is a readable and exhaustive study of the St. Thomas Christians.)
  • Poomangalam, C.A. (1998). The Antiquities of the Knanaya Syrian Christians.[full citation needed]
  • Pothan, S.G. (1963). The Syrian Christians of Kerala. New York: Asia Pub. House.
  • Tisserant, E. (1957). Eastern Christianity in India: A History of the Syro-Malabar Church from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Translated and edited by E. R. Hambye. Westminster, MD: Newman Press.
  • Weil, S. (1982). "Symmetry between Christians and Jews in India: The Cananite Christians and Cochin Jews in Kerala". Contributions to Indian Sociology.

Further reading

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  • David de Beth Hillel (1832). Travels. Madras publication.
  • Bevan, A.A., ed. (1897). The hymn of the soul, contained in the Syriac Acts of St. Thomas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Harris, Ian C., ed. (1992). Contemporary Religions: A World Guide. Harlow: Longman. ISBN 9780582086951.
  • Hough, James (1893). The History of Christianity in India.
  • Koder, S. (1973). "History of the Jews of Kerala". In G. Menachery (ed.). The St.Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India.
  • Krishna Iyer, K.V. (1971). "Kerala's Relations with the Outside World". The Cochin Synagogue Quatercentenary Celebrations Commemoration Volume. Cochin: Kerala History Association. pp. 70–71.
  • Landstrom, Bjorn (1964). The Quest for India. Stockholm: Doubleday English Edition.
  • Lord, James Henry (1977). The Jews in India and the Far East (Reprint ed.). Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-8371-2615-0.
  • Menachery, G. (1987). "Chs. I and II". Kodungallur City of St. Thomas. Mar Thoma Shrine Azhikode. Reprinted 2000 as "Kodungallur Cradle of Christianity in India".
  • Menachery, George (2005). Glimpses of Nazraney Heritage. Ollur. ISBN 81-87133-08-2.
  • Menachery, G., ed. (2010). The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India. Vol. 3. Ollur.
  • Miller, J. Innes (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1
  • Periplus Maris Erythraei [The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea] (in Latin). Translated by Wilfred Schoff. 1912. Reprinted South Asia Books 1995 ISBN 81-215-0699-9.
  • Puthiakunnel, Thomas (1973). "Jewish colonies of India paved the way for St. Thomas". In George Menachery (ed.). The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India. Vol. II. Trichur: St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India.
  • Winkler, Dietmar (2018). "The Syriac Church Denominations: An overview". In Daniel King (ed.). The Syriac World. Routledge. pp. 119–133. ISBN 978-1-317-48211-6.
  • Samuel, V.C. (1992). The-Growing-Church: An Introduction to Indian Church History, Kottayam (PDF).
  • Vadakkekara, Benedict (2007). Origin of Christianity in India: A Historiographical Critique. Delhi: Media House. ISBN 9788174952585.
  • Velu Pillai, T.K. (1940). The Travancore State Manual. Trivandrum. 4 volumes
  • Visvanathan, Susan (1993). The Christians of Kerala: history, belief, and ritual among the Yakoba. Madras: Oxford University Press.
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